What Is Indus Waters Treaty?
The Indus Waters Treaty (IWT) has been one of the most enduring international agreements in the world, especially considering the hostile relationship between the two countries it involves—India and Pakistan. Signed in 1960, this treaty has not only withstood wars but also several geopolitical crises. However, recent developments have shaken its foundation, with India suspending the treaty in April 2025, following another surge in cross-border tensions. This move has prompted a re-evaluation of one of the world’s most significant water-sharing arrangements.
Understanding the Indus Waters Treaty
The Indus Waters Treaty was brokered by the World Bank and signed between Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President Ayub Khan on September 19, 1960. The primary objective was to settle disputes over the use of the waters of the Indus River system, which originates in the Himalayas and flows through both India and Pakistan before draining into the Arabian Sea.
The treaty divides the six rivers of the Indus basin into two groups:
- Eastern Rivers: Ravi, Beas, and Sutlej, allocated to India.
- Western Rivers: Indus, Jhelum, and Chenab, largely reserved for Pakistan.
India was allowed limited uses of the western rivers, such as for drinking, agriculture, and hydroelectric projects, provided they did not obstruct the natural flow of the rivers. The agreement also established the Permanent Indus Commission (PIC) to facilitate cooperation and resolve disputes.
A Remarkable Yet Unequal Agreement
Although the treaty has often been hailed as a symbol of diplomacy, many Indian experts have criticized it as being disproportionately favorable to Pakistan. India controls the headwaters of all six rivers but was given unrestricted access to only three. This allowed Pakistan to build its agrarian economy heavily reliant on the western rivers, while India was restricted despite having potential to develop infrastructure and generate hydroelectricity.
Still, India honored the treaty through decades of conflict, including during the wars of 1965, 1971, and the Kargil conflict in 1999. Despite Pakistan sponsoring cross-border terrorism, India never retaliated by withdrawing from the treaty—until now.
Tensions Over Water Infrastructure
Over the years, disputes have emerged due to India’s efforts to utilize its share of the water through run-of-the-river hydroelectric projects. Projects like Kishanganga and Ratle hydroelectric plants in Jammu & Kashmir became flashpoints. Pakistan repeatedly objected, claiming they violated treaty norms. India maintained that these projects were within treaty limits, as they did not obstruct water flow but simply diverted water temporarily for electricity generation.
The inability of both sides to resolve these disputes bilaterally led to international arbitration and World Bank intervention. This pattern increasingly frustrated Indian policymakers, who saw Pakistan’s objections as a tactic to delay or sabotage legitimate Indian development projects.
India’s 2023 Notice for Treaty Modification
In January 2023, India formally sent a notice to Pakistan seeking a review and modification of the Indus Waters Treaty. The notice cited Pakistan’s continuous objections to Indian projects, refusal to engage in dispute resolution bilaterally, and abuse of international mechanisms. India also pointed to the need to update the treaty to reflect current realities, such as climate change, increased water demand, and new geopolitical dynamics.
This notice gave Pakistan 90 days to respond, failing which India could explore ways to either renegotiate or withdraw from the treaty. This was the first serious attempt by India to reconsider the agreement since its inception.
Suspension of the Treaty in 2025
On April 22, 2025, India announced the suspension of the Indus Waters Treaty. The move came in the aftermath of a deadly terrorist attack in Pahalgam, Jammu & Kashmir, which Indian intelligence agencies attributed to Pakistani-backed militants. The decision was seen as a strong diplomatic response, signaling that cross-border terrorism would now be met with direct consequences—including on strategic issues like water sharing.
The suspension reflects India’s intention to withhold cooperation and potentially increase its use of the western rivers for hydro projects, storage, and irrigation—rights already permitted under the treaty but never fully exercised.
Legal and Geopolitical Implications
Legally, India’s move to suspend the treaty is unprecedented. Though the treaty itself does not include a formal exit clause, it is a bilateral agreement and, like any international pact, can be withdrawn from or revised if mutual consent is absent. India’s step raises important questions: Can one country unilaterally suspend such an agreement? What role will the World Bank play now?
Geopolitically, the suspension marks a turning point. Pakistan, already water-stressed, relies heavily on the Indus system. Any threat to that flow could create severe agricultural and economic disruption. While India has not cut water yet, the suspension puts psychological and diplomatic pressure on Pakistan.
This also opens the door for India to push harder on water development projects in Jammu & Kashmir, which previously drew international scrutiny.
Environmental and Human Impact
Apart from geopolitical dimensions, the treaty has environmental consequences. Climate change has already begun altering Himalayan glacier patterns, impacting river flow volumes. Both India and Pakistan will need to cooperate more closely in coming decades to manage water shortages, floods, and disasters. A suspended treaty puts long-term sustainability at risk.
Additionally, millions of farmers in both nations rely on these waters. Any disruption, even minor, could trigger food insecurity and civil unrest. Hence, while diplomatic posturing is expected, any escalation must be handled cautiously.
Conclusion: Treaty at a Crossroads
The Indus Waters Treaty has long been a symbol of hope that even adversaries can find common ground. Its durability was often cited as a model for conflict-prone regions. However, as regional dynamics evolve, the treaty’s continued relevance and fairness are under question.
India’s suspension is both a warning and a wake-up call. It signals a new approach where water, once kept away from the realm of conflict, is now part of strategic calculus. Whether this leads to renegotiation, escalation, or eventual resolution depends on the willingness of Pakistan to act responsibly.
In an era marked by water scarcity and rising nationalism, the future of the Indus Waters Treaty—and the lives it affects—hangs in the balance.
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